The period before the Great Depression, the 1920s, was known as the Roaring Twenties or the Jazz Age. This era was marked by artistic movements such as the creation of jazz music and a rich offering of American writing. During this time the federal government provided some aid to the states, but left most of the power to the states, which is known as double federalism. It also marked the end of modest social traditions and the wave of materialism encouraged by increased customer spending with the open use of a new concept called credit. With the arrival of the Great Depression, a cry went out for government involvement in economic matters. when the United States hit an all-time low. When Wall Street collapsed, millions of dollars plummeted and the country was plunged into the most severe economic recession the United States had ever seen. What little money the cities had was quickly spent on helping the poor. Americans who did not react to the Great Depression by blaming themselves responded with protests that were uncoordinated and spontaneous at first, but then grew in size and consensus. Americans banded together to form councils of the unemployed, sponsoring marches for public assistance, and protesting the eviction of unemployed families from their homes. President Hoover's response to the Great Depression, in the eyes of many Americans, was inadequate and indifferent. In the 1930s, administrative remedies, such as the Hawley-Smoot tariff, worsened the economic situation. The increase in taxes in South Africa, also promoted by President Hoover in Congress, further reduced Americans' purchasing power. In 1932, Hoover had to admit that voluntary action had failed to stem the Depression. When Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected… mid-paper… reasonable independence from the state. The grants offered to states and local government had very few specific terms and conditions. “During the 1930s grants were even larger, mainly due to the large volume of emergency grants” (2013). Because of the growing number of collaborative intergovernmental efforts to address domestic issues reserved to states, the United States abandoned dual federalism with the onset of the era of cooperative federalism. Through the New Deal and FDR's grants, states and local government were encouraged to interact cooperatively with the national government to solve common problems, rather than making policies separately. Cooperative federalism continued during the administrations of John F. Kennedy (1960–1963) and Lyndon Johnson (1964–1968), but with a greater emphasis on targeted aid to the poor in the form of categorical grants.